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foundation or framework to understand what the limits of intelligence are

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Ability to perceive, infer, retain or apply information

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for brainchild, logic, understanding, cocky-sensation, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, inventiveness, disquisitional thinking, and problem-solving. More generally, it tin can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information, and to retain information technology as cognition to exist applied towards adaptive behaviors inside an environs or context.

Intelligence is nigh often studied in humans but has also been observed in both non-human animals and in plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life showroom intelligence.[i] [ii] Intelligence in computers or other machines is called bogus intelligence.

Etymology

Principal article: Nous

The give-and-take intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus, which in turn stem from the verb intelligere, to cover or perceive. In the Middle Ages, the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known equally the active intelligence). This approach to the report of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern philosophers such equally Francis Salary, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "intellectus" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works.[3] [4] Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus intelligit", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical absurdity.[v] "Intelligence" has therefore get less common in English language philosophy, merely information technology has subsequently been taken upwardly (with the scholastic theories which information technology at present implies) in more contemporary psychology.[6]

Definitions

The definition of intelligence is controversial, varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable.[seven] Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions:

From "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an op-ed statement in the Wall Street Journal signed by fifty-two researchers (out of 131 full invited to sign):[viii]

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, call back abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely volume learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, information technology reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.[9]

From Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Clan:

Individuals differ from one another in their power to sympathize complex ideas, to arrange effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles past taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person'south intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by unlike criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to analyze and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when ii dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave ii dozen, somewhat different, definitions.[x]

Besides those definitions, psychology and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such every bit the following:

Researcher Quotation
Alfred Binet Judgment, otherwise called "adept sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one'south self to circumstances ... car-critique.[11]
David Wechsler The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his surround.[12]
Lloyd Humphreys "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in retentiveness, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".[xiii]
Howard Gardner To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving — enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product — and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems — and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.[14]
Linda Gottfredson The ability to bargain with cognitive complexity.[15]
Robert Sternberg & William Salter Goal-directed adaptive behavior.[xvi]
Reuven Feuerstein The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to modify or modify the structure of their cerebral functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".[17]
Shane Legg & Marcus Hutter A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an amanuensis's power to attain goals in a wide range of environments",[vii] which has been mathematically formalized.[eighteen]
Alexander Wissner-Gross F = T ∇ S τ {\displaystyle _{\tau }} [xix]

"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts then as to maximize futurity liberty of action. Information technology acts to maximize future freedom of action, or go along options open, with some force T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In curt, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".

Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the intellectual ability of humans, which is marked past complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness.[xx] Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It is a cognitive process. It gives humans the cerebral abilities to acquire, grade concepts, sympathise, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, program, solve problems, and utilise linguistic communication to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and retrieve.[21]

Intelligence is different from learning. Learning refers to the human action of retaining facts and information or abilities and beingness able to recall them for future utilise, while intelligence is the cerebral ability of someone to perform these and other processes. At that place accept been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the Intelligence Caliber (IQ) examination. Nevertheless, many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests, stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence.[22]

There is debate nearly if human intelligence is based on hereditary factors or if information technology is based on environmental factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and not able to grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is adult throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An surround that cultivates intelligence is one that challenges the person's cognitive abilities.[22]

Much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non-homo animals.[ citation needed ]

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is idea to be the power to convey emotion to others in an understandable manner as well as to read the emotions of others accurately.[23] Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could besides lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy.[24] In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to assist us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our mental health and has ties into social intelligence.[23]

Social intelligence is the ability to sympathize the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. Information technology is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we brand judgements of others, the accuracy with which nosotros do and then, and why people would exist viewed as having positive or negative social graphic symbol. There is debate every bit to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of ii different schools of thought.[25]

Book smart and street smart

Concepts of "volume smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through bookish written report, only may lack the experience to sensibly utilize that knowledge, while others have cognition gained through applied experience, but may lack accurate data commonly gained through study by which to effectively utilize that noesis. Bogus intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that:

Given the importance of learning through text in our ain personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of information technology. It is sometimes derided as beingness simply "volume knowledge," and having it is being "book smart." In dissimilarity, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge," and having it is existence "street smart".[26]

Nonhuman animal intelligence

Although humans have been the main focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities betwixt species. They report various measures of trouble solving, as well equally numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges in this expanse are defining intelligence and so that it has the same meaning across species (e.yard. comparison intelligence between literate humans and illiterate animals), and also operationalizing a mensurate that accurately compares mental ability across unlike species and contexts.[ citation needed ]

Wolfgang Köhler'south research on the intelligence of apes is an case of enquiry in this area. Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs is a notable book on the topic of dog intelligence.[27] (Run into also: Dog intelligence.) Non-human animals peculiarly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.[28]

Cephalopod intelligence also provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods announced to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, nevertheless their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.[29]

g factor in non-humans

Show of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general cistron of intelligence, or grand factor, is a psychometric construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a broad range of cognitive abilities. Showtime described in humans, the g cistron has since been identified in a number of non-human species.[30]

Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the aforementioned, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a diversity of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates[xxx] and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are like to the accustomed variance in IQ explained past g in humans (40–50%).[31]

Plant intelligence

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype appropriately to ensure cocky-preservation and reproduction.[32] [33]

A counter statement is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the cosmos and use of persistent memories as opposed to ciphering that does non involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then information technology includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "auto learning", only excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that tin exist observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are besides capable of communication, accurately calculating their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled deportment to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.[one] [2] [34]

Artificial intelligence

Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to exist general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence besides. An intelligent amanuensis can be defined as a system that perceives its surround and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.[35] Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system'due south ability to correctly translate external data, to learn from such data, and to apply those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".[36] Progress in artificial intelligence can exist demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to applied tasks such as poly peptide folding.[37] Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes divers as the "capacity to learn how to bear out a huge range of tasks".[38]

Singularitarian Eliezer Yudkowsky provides a loose qualitative definition of intelligence as "that sort of smartish stuff coming out of brains, which can play chess, and price bonds, and persuade people to buy bonds, and invent guns, and figure out gravity by looking at wandering lights in the sky; and which, if a auto intelligence had it in large quantities, might let it invent molecular nanotechnology; and then on". Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent'due south chapters for efficient cross-domain optimization of the globe according to the agent'southward preferences, or more than but the power to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has the power to "steer a chessboard'due south future into a subspace of possibility which information technology labels equally 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere."[39] Hutter and Legg, subsequently surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an amanuensis'southward power to accomplish goals in a wide range of environments".[40] [41] While cerebral ability is sometimes measured as a i-dimensional parameter, information technology could also be represented as a "hypersurface in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are proficient at different intellectual tasks.[42] Some skeptics believe that in that location is no meaningful way to define intelligence, bated from "simply pointing to ourselves".[43]

See also

  • Active intellect
  • Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
  • Intellect
  • Intelligence (journal)
  • Cognition
  • Neuroscience and intelligence
  • Noogenesis
  • Outline of human intelligence
  • Passive intellect
  • Superintelligence
  • Sapience

References

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  11. ^ Binet, Alfred (1916) [1905]. "New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals". The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 37–90. originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année Psychologique, xi, 191–244
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Further reading

  • Binet, Alfred; Simon, Thursday. (1916). The evolution of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale. Publications of the Preparation School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. South. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p. 1. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
  • Haier, Richard (2016). The Neuroscience of Intelligence. Cambridge University Printing.
  • Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, Maude A. (1937). Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence. Riverside textbooks in pedagogy. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 964301.
  • Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985). Handbook of Intelligence. consulting editors: Douglas Chiliad. Detterman, Alan South. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York (NY): Wiley. ISBN978-0-471-89738-5. This handbook includes chapters by Paul B. Baltes, Ann Eastward. Boehm, Thomas J. Bouchard Jr., Nathan Brody, Valerie J. Melt, Roger A. Dixon, Gerald E. Gruen, J. P. Guilford, David O. Herman, John 50. Horn, Lloyd G. Humphreys, George W. Hynd, Randy Due west. Kamphaus, Robert Thou. Kaplan, Alan S. Kaufman, Nadeen L. Kaufman, Deirdre A. Kramer, Roger T. Lennon, Michael Lewis, Joseph D. Matarazzo, Damian McShane, Mary N. Meeker, Kazuo Nihira, Thomas Oakland, Ronald Parmelee, Cecil R. Reynolds, Nancy L. Segal, Robert J. Sternberg, Margaret Wolan Sullivan, Steven 1000. Vandenberg, George P. Vogler, W. Grant Willis, Benjamin B. Wolman, James W. Soo-Sam, and Irla Lee Zimmerman.
  • Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000). The Nature of Intelligence. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Chichester: Wiley. doi:x.1002/0470870850. ISBN978-0471494348.
    • Lay summary in: William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001). "The Nature of Intelligence". Mental Assist (Review). Archived from the original on 26 May 2013.
  • Blakeslee, Sandra; Hawkins, Jeff (2004). On intelligence . New York: Times Books. ISBN978-0-8050-7456-7. OCLC 55510125.
  • Stanovich, Keith (2009). What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-12385-2.
    • Lay summary in: Jamie Hale. "What Intelligence Tests Miss". Psych Central (Review). Archived from the original on 24 Dec 2013.
  • Flynn, James R. (2009). What Is Intelligence: Across the Flynn Effect (expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-74147-seven.
    • Lay summary in: C Shalizi (27 Apr 2009). "What Is Intelligence? Across the Flynn Effect". University of Michigan (Review). Archived from the original on xiv June 2010.
  • Mackintosh, N. J. (2011). IQ and Human Intelligence (second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-958559-v.
  • Sternberg, Robert J.; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011). The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108770422. ISBN9780521739115.

External links

  • Intelligence on In Our Fourth dimension at the BBC
  • History of Influences in the Evolution of Intelligence Theory and Testing – Developed by Jonathan Plucker at Indiana University
  • The Limits of Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human being encephalon from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine past Douglas Fox in Scientific American, 14 June 2011.
  • A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence

Scholarly journals and societies

  • Intelligence (journal homepage)
  • International Society for Intelligence Research (homepage)

harpertany1981.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence

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